Minerals are required in small quantities, making them apparently less significant in comparison to macronutrients. However, their role in regulating metabolism, production and health, cannot be under rated. The term ‘requirement’ for minerals is only a guideline as many conditions like antagonism / synergism, bioavailability and productivity level govern the requirement. Thus specific mineral deficiency or toxicity problem become area, feed or species specific. The quantity or quality of minerals in feed and fodder thus become dependent type of soil, type of feed/fodder and the existing feeding practice.
Geo-ecological system and mineral content of plants
The plants derive the minerals from soil, and the animals from the plants/feed they consume and there is an interrelationship between soil, plant and animals, which may not be linear always. Several factors regulate the transfer of minerals from soils to plants and from plants to animals. Soil characteristics (pH, moisture), the type of plant (green fodder, legume and mature straws etc.), the physiological status of the animal (growing, pregnant, lactating) and the accompanying feed, all of these individually and/or collectively contribute to the mineral uptake and utilization. The mineral content of soil depends not only on the parent material but on a complex of pedogenic factors like laterization, calcification and salinization. Translocation further occurs by processes of surface erosion, leaching, evaporation and redeposition of minerals on the surface. Of the total mineral concentration in soils, only a fraction is taken up by the plants. The availability of minerals in soil depends upon their effective concentration in soil solution and also includes 1) soil acidity 2) soil moisture 3) soil temperature 4) plant variety 5) fertilization 6) organic matter and microbial activity of soil. For trace mineral absorption, the pH has the most marked effect on the availability. Alkaline soils lead to an increased biological availability of some trace elements such as Se and Mo. With decreasing soil pH, uptake of some cationic metals like Cu is increased. Soil leaching, erosion, long term cropping and imbalanced use of fertilizers lead to depletion of trace minerals. Crop management and climatic conditions also influence the eventual trace mineral level in feeds. Fertilization and / or heavy rainfall can result in lush pasture growth and eventually dilute some trace minerals. Contaminated water near factories / effluents also carries toxic minerals and produce antagonistic effect on certain essential minerals. The water in some regions of India(Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab) contain high amount of fluoride and this could induce cumulative fluoride toxicity in livestock interfering with calcium and iodine utilization.
With increased soil pH, there is drastic decrease in Mn uptake. Water logging of a soil results in conversion of an aerobic to an anaerobic environment in the root zone area. The soil temperature and season can influence the uptake of minerals and growth of pastures. At low temperatures, the mineral uptake is slower possibly because of depressed root extension and membrane permeability. With the advent of green revolution, deficiency of micronutrients was observed widely in several Indian soils and crops. The soil in tropical climate is mostly deficient in P. Zinc deficiency has been widely reported in rice, wheat, maize, groundnut, cotton and their residues in the intensively cultivated irrigated areas. While soil-plant-animal relationship may point towards area problem of specific mineral deficiency, the relationship is not linear in many situations. Hence soil, plant and livestock sometimes do not respond equally to certain top dressing of soil. For example soil enriched with Mg by Epsom or Ca by using gypsum may not be able to elevate the systemic Mg or Ca level in animals, when consuming plants grown in these soils.
Feeds/ fodders are the main source of minerals for livestock. Grazing animals receive certain level of minerals from water and soil ingestion. Mineral concentrations and availability are mainly affected by four interdependent factors viz., 1) genus, species, or variety of crop, 2) type and mineral concentration of soil, 3) climatic or seasonal conditions, 4) stage of plant maturity. Plant varieties growing on the same soil under the same environmental conditions show marked differences in mineral uptake. Legumes are superior in Ca and Mg uptake from soil compared to the grasses. In contrast, grasses tend to be higher in manganese and molybdenum than legumes when grown on the same soil. Most of the trace mineral concentration was higher in pasture legume species than other grasses. Research has shown that even variety within a species vary in mineral composition. Straws and stovers are deficient in most of the minerals. They also contain excess of silica, oxalate and tannins which may interfere in the utilization of other minerals / nutrients. Plant requirement for certain minerals (Mn, Zn, K) may exceed the animal requirements and hence can be good source of such minerals.
Mineral deficiency
The assessment and the prevention of trace mineral deficiency needs a thorough understanding of the factors like age of animal, season, clinical signs, soil profile, plant mineral content and feeding practices. Based on these preliminary information, further biological diagnostic tests can be followed for confirmation. In general mineral deficiency is diagnosed by observing the clinical symptoms. But mineral deficiency signs are often confusing as the observed symptoms can be associated with more than one mineral and can also be combined with the effects of protein and/ or energy inadequacy, parasitic load, toxic plants, infectious diseases or deficiency of other micronutrients. Except for characteristic signs like goiter in iodine deficiency or white muscle disease in selenium deficiency, most trace element deficiencies produce non-specific signs such as loss of appetite, retarded growth, unthriftiness or reproductive problems, and hence clinical / pathological examination of biological materials is required. Some minerals like Ca, Mg and P are stored in body tissues and their deficiency symptoms are exhibited only after a period of time. Calcium and P deficiency can be observed more quickly, particularly in high producing animals and fast growing calves. Certain naturally occurring mineral deficiency / toxicity are directly related to soil/water characteristics as in case of fluoride, Se and Mo. Other limitation of plant mineral analysis is the biological availability and factors influencing the utilization like chelating agents and mineral antagonism. Analysis of mineral content in target body tissue is a better indicator of the mineral adequacy because mineral deficiency results in subnormal concentration of the element and will usually be associated with clinical signs. However for certain minerals due to homeostatic mechanisms the levels may remain normal for sometime, even during deficiency, but will respond positively to supplementation.
Subclinical mineral deficiencies are thought to be very widespread and are likely to be of more economic significance. With inadequate mineral intake, animals may have lower milk production, growth, low immunity and reproductive efficiency without recognizable signs. So, it is utmost important to diagnose the mineral inadequacy in animals at marginal or sub optimum levels at the earliest so as to take remedial measures before it becomes irreversible. Most potential method for mineral status assessment includes use of biochemical markers.
Mineral status across Indian eco systems
Some states in India have more than three agro – eco systems and the data compilation has been done accordingly to depict the mineral status (Table 1). The data on mineral status of livestock in different agro-eco systems of India has been summarized (Table 2). In general Ca, P, Cu and Zn are the most limiting minerals across the country followed by Mn, Mg, S and Co. However, the type and extent of deficiency varied considerably across the region. Broadly there are 6 agro-climatic regions in India and the feed resources with adequate mineral content has been provided in Table 3. In general, dry roughages and crop residues are poor sources of minerals and are rich in silica and lignin. Cultivated green fodders and mixed local grasses are moderate to good sources of most trace minerals (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn). Top feeds/ tree leaves and legume fodders are good sources of Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe and Co. Cereal grains are poor sources of most minerals but the cereal by products like brans and polishing are very good sources of P and Mn. Oil cakes are also good sources of P, Zn and Mn. Some feeds / fodders available locally contain good amount of certain specific minerals, and hence can be used strategically in animal feeding. In parts of Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat dry fodders contain higher Se, whereas in parts Assam, local fodders contain more molybdenum.
Amelioration of mineral deficiency
Enrichment of soil
Indirect provision of minerals to grazing livestock includes, mineral fertilization of soil/pasture and altering soil pH, however this may not be always feasible due to complex soil – plant – animal interrelationship. In the indirect approach, soil treatment of deficient minerals would make these elements accumulate in plants. For instance soil treatment of cobalt and selenium will improve their concentration in plants without having any effect on plant yield. This effect may be neutralized in high alkaline or calcareous soils, as the uptake of cobalt by plants in such soils would be affected. Copper application makes it more available to plants in soils low in molybdenum content, but will not be effective when soils contain high molybdenum. High application of NPK fertilizers reduces the calcium, magnesium and sodium availability to plants. So the approach to enrich the soil through micronutrient supplementation may not be very cost effective and also may not yield the desired results due to the variation in soil profile in different zones. Trace element intakes that can be improved by fertilization include selenium, cobalt, copper, zinc, boron, and possibly nickel.
Direct methods of mineral supplementation
In India the livestock farmers provide some quantity of cakes, bran, rice polish and husk as concentrate supplement to productive animals. Except in some parts of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh green fodder is not fed regularly to the animals. Mineral mixture feeding is not a common and regular practice in some regions. The possible reasons would be the cost factor and lack of awareness. The direct approach of supplementing minerals in the diet of cattle depending on the severity of deficiency may be a more practical method. The most efficient method of providing trace minerals is through mineral mixture mixed with concentrate feed ingredients. Supplementation can also be achieved through feeding compound feeds, oral drenching or dosing or by administering slow releasing mineral boluses which are retained in the gut and in the form of injectable preparations.
Area-specific mineral mixture (ASMM)
Alternatively providing area-specific mineral mixture based on the deficiency of minerals in plant and animals in different agro-climatic zones is most appropriate and cost effective method of mineral supplementation. The approach of free choice general mineral supplementation could sometimes lead to deleterious effect, as some of the minerals may be available in excess than requirements affecting utilization of other minerals, like excess of molybdenum and sulphur reducing copper absorption and excess of iron disturbing copper metabolism. This approach has been found to improve the reproductive efficiency and health in dairy animals under field conditions.
Supplementation through local feed resources
One of the other cost effective method of mineral supplementation is to provide feed and fodder sources rich in the specific mineral, which are commonly being fed / grown in that particular region. Based on the mineral content of feed and fodder (Table 3) the appropriate feeding could be adopted for livestock.
Organic and chelated minerals
There is a growing interest in the use of organic and / or chelated minerals due to better bioavailability, improved reproductive performance and immune response. Organic forms of Zn and Cu as Zn-methionine or Cu-lysine bypass the rumen and are available at intestine, thus protecting the essential amino acids from degradation and make them available for absorption in the gut. Zn-methionine supplementation in cattle has improved disease resistance and prevented foot rot and hoof problems. Copper in chelated form would have an advantage over an inorganic form when Mo level is high, as it may escape complexing. A mixture of Zn, Mn, Cu & Se in organic forms may stimulate feed intake and growth during stress period. These chelated minerals can be of much use in areas of severe deficiency like under tropical feeding systems, but the cost benefit ratio need to be established. However, this approach is more environment friendly as there is less faecal excretion of minerals. Emphasis should be on ways of mineral supplementation cost-effectively based on prevailing livestock farming system and available resources. Three forms of mineral supplements can be practically adopted. 1. General purpose, productivity supporting, inorganic mineral compounds 2. Special purpose (high phosphorus, high calcium, high zinc, high copper), which are area specific formulated depending upon valid area survey results. 3. Organic ligand bound specific supplements (chelates, proteinates and amino acid complexes) for feeding under intensive farming systems particularly in stressful and most deficient conditions.
One sustainable agricultural approach to reducing the mineral deficiencies in livestock is to enrich major staple food crops (rice, wheat, maize) with minerals through plant breeding strategies. Biofortification of plants with minerals may be a promising and cost-effective intervention. The idea is to breed food crops for higher mineral content, which can be done through plant breeding or genetic engineering. It is time to move forward with a strong program to develop micronutrient-rich crop varieties, demonstrate their impact on human and animal nutrition. Fodder grown on soil with and without zinc soil biofortification is depicted below.
Conclusion
Ameliorating the deficiency or imbalance of minerals improves the productive efficiency of livestock. Hence minerals are to be considered as a part of complete nutrient management system. The emphasis should be on ways of mineral supplementation cost-effectively based on prevailing livestock system and available resources. Bioavailability of minerals should be given emphasis while supplementing and better bioavailable inorganic salts or organic / chelated form of trace minerals are to be used.
Table 1. Agro-eco zones in states of India
| Sl No | Agro-eco zone | States |
| 1 | Rainfed | Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Daman & Diu, Dadar & Nagar Heveli, Karnataka, Telangana |
| 2 | Irrigated | Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan |
| 3 | Arid | Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana |
| 4 | Semi arid | Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra |
| 5 | Coastal | Kerala, Goa, Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep |
| 6 | Hilly and Mountain | Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Sikkim, Mizoram, West Bengal |
Table 2. Mineral status of livestock in different agro-eco zones
| Sl No | Agro-eco zone | Deficient minerals | |
| First limiting | Second limiting | ||
| 1 | Rain fed | Ca, Zn, Cu, P | Mg, Mn, Fe |
| 2 | Irrigated | Ca,Zn, P, Cu | Mn, Co, S, I, Fe |
| 3 | Arid | Ca,P,Zn,Cu | S,Mn,Co |
| 4 | Semi arid | Ca,P,Zn,S,Cu | Na,Mg,Mn,I,Fe |
| 5 | Coastal | Ca,P,Cu,Zn | S,Mg,Mn,Co |
| 6 | Hilly and Mountain | P,Ca,Cu,Zn,Na | Mg,Mn,I,K |
Table 3. Cataloguing of common feeds and fodders based on mineral content
| Mineral | Good sources | Moderate sources |
| Ca | 1-2 %
Fodder / Grass : Lucerne, cowpea, rice bean, dolichos lab-lab, stylosanthus, velvet bean,green panic,dinanath grass Top feeds:Glyrecidia leaves,mulberry leaves,erythrina leaves,neem leaves,jack leaves,Carrot tops Unconventional feeds:Sunflower heads,horse gram pods,groundnut haulms |
0.7-1.0%
Fodder / Grasses:Maize fodder, sorghum fodder,guinea grass,anjan grass,green panic,mixed local grasses Oil seed cakes: Rapeseed cake sunflower cake, castor bean cake,rubber seed cake Top feeds: Banana leaves,rain tree leaves Unconventional feeds: Finger millet pods gram husk,silk worm pupae meal,meat meal
|
| P | 1-3 %
Oil Seed Cakes: Groundnut cake,coconut cake,cotton seed cake,soyabean cake,sunflower cake,rape seed cake By Products :Rice polish,wheat bran,rice bran Unconventional feeds:Soya husk,meat meal |
0.5-1.0 %
Fodder / Grasses :Lucerne,velvet bean,para grass,blue panic, guinea grass Oil seed cakes:Sunflower cake,neem seed cake,karanj cake,castor cake,rubber seed cake,guar meal Unconventional feeds,Maize husk,rain tree pods
|
| Mg | 0.4-0.7 %
Fodder / Grasses:Cow pea fodder,dinanath grass Oil cakes:Cotton seed cake,sunflower cake By Products :Rice polish ,rice bran Top feeds:Glyrecidia Unconventional feeds :Cocoa seed husk, groundnut haulms, sea weed |
0.2- 0.4 %
Dry roughage:Ragi straw Fodder / Grasses: Rice bean fodder,cow pea fodder,hybrid napier,guinea grass,maize fodder,soybean fodder Oil seed cakes:Rapeseed cake,castor cake,coconut cake,groundnut cake Top feeds: Subabul leaves,mulberry leaves
|
| S | 0.5-0.7%
Protein sources: Mustard cake, soyabean meal, groundnut cake, meat meal
|
0.3-0.5%
By- Products: Wheat bran, rice bran, rice polish |
| Cu | 30-70 ppm
Fodder / Grasses:Cow pea,dolichos lab lab,soybean fodder,NB – 21 fodder, guinea grass,maize fodder, Top feeds:Banana leaves,carrot tops,glyrecidia Unconventional:Subabul pods,castor cake rubber seed cake,bamboo leaves,groundnut haulms |
15-30 ppm
Fodder / Grass:Guinea grass,hybrid napier,Co-I fodder,para grass,local grasses Oil seed cakes:Groundnut cake,coconut cake,sunflower cake,soya meal,neem seed cake,copra cake, By Products : Rice polish Top feeds:Mulberry leaves,erythrina leaves,glyrecidia leaves,subabul leaves,Rain tree leaves
|
| Mineral | Good sources | Moderate sources |
| Zn | 150-300 ppm
Fodder / Grasses:Stylosanthus,velvet bean fodder,anjan grass,guinea grass, NB – 21 fodder,Co-I fodder, soybean fodder Oil seed cakes: Copra cake,neem seed cake karanj seed cake, By Products :Wheat bran Unconventional feeds :Tapioca meal,ginger waste,coffee husk, silk worm pupae meal,meat meal |
50-150 ppm
Fodder / Grasses:Rice bean, fodder,dinanath grass,green panic,para grass,sorghum fodder Oil seed cakes:Groundnut cake,cotton seed cake,sunflower cake,safflower cake By products:Rice Polish, Top feeds:Banana leaves,jack leaves,glyrecidia leaves,neem leaves,Unconventional feeds:Tapioca meal sugarcane bagasse,subabul pods |
| Fe | 1000-5000 ppm
Fodder / Grass:Cowpea,Rice bean fodder dinanath fodder,anjan grass,signal grass,NB – 21 fodder,Co – I fodder,para grass,mixed local grasses,weeds, Oil seed cakes: Cotton seed cake,sunflower cake,rubber seed cake Top feeds: Glyrecidia leaves,erythrina leaves,subabul leaves, Unconventional Feeds:Spent coffee,cocoa seed husk, meat meal,groundnut haulms |
500-1000 ppm
Dry fodder:Ragi Straw,paddy straw,bajra straw,maize kadbi,jowar kadbi Fodder / Grasses:Dolichos lab lab guinea grass,maize fodder,jowar fodder,sorghum fodder, Oil seed cakes:Groundnut cake By Products :Rice polish,rice bran Grains:Maize,rice, Top feeds:Banana leaves,mulberry leaves,neem, leaves,sugarcane tops |
| Mn | 100-250 ppm
By-products: Wheat bran, rice bran Crop residues: Paddy and ragi straw,Green fodder: Lucerne, cow pea |
40-100 ppm
Green fodders, leafy vegetation. |
| I | 0.1-0.7 ppm
Marine products, oil seed cakes, iodized common salt, yeast. |
0.10 ppm
Green fodders |
| Co | 0.2-0.6 ppm
Legume fodders, animal proteins, fermented products. |
0.1-0.2 ppm
Green fodders, tree leaves |
| Mo | 0.5-1.5 ppm
Legumes, green grasses. |
0.2-0.4 ppm
Fodder tree leaves |
| Se | 0.4-0.6 ppm
Marine products, meat meal, Se-Yeast |
0.3-0.4ppm
Cultivated green fodders, legumes |
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Very good information, we can incorporate this while preparing area specific mineral mixtures
very good article sir
Excellent job…very useful information
Very good and detailed information about trace minerals. This helps veterinarians to advocate minerals based on geographycal locations and the present feeding practices. Great job.
The authors effort to present the information is laudable.
Many private firms or companies can think of preparing area specific mineral mixtures.
Karnataka Milk Federation is the one preparing such mineral mixtures for specific districts
I prefer the maximum quantity of some these un conventional feeds should have been incorporated in the article.
Good information for formulating mineral supplements in different regions
Useful information
Very good information for people related to dairy industry
Very good information and use full practicle feeding of livestock
Useful information for formulating mineral supplements in different regions
Good information
Excellent job